Accountability its Importance , Difference between Responsibility and Accountability

Accountability

The general sense of accountability is required or expected to justify actions or decisions. This is the dictionary meaning of accountability. But in governmental affairs particularly in public administration it has special implications and the concept is regarded as an important part. It implies that the representatives elected by the people must give explanations of the electorate for all these policies and actions. This is a very important part of democracy-particularly represen­tative form of government. This is a very common cause that a person by whom he is elected is accountable to him or them. This is not only a common sense affair but the very foundation of democracy.

A quite reasonable definition of the term is: “The requirement for represen­tatives to answer to the represented on the disposal of their powers and duties and act upon criticisms.” The ministers are accountable to the legislature, and the members of the legislature are accountable to the electorate. It may be explained in another way.

When a person is entrusted with a job or duty he is supposed to do it to the best of his ability, experience, honesty and efficiency. But if he fails to satisfy his employer, the latter can claim explanation, or the latter can ask him the cause of failure. This is called accountability. Hence accountability means one is bound to give explanation for the policy or work done by someone.

In Greek city-states the citizens assembled in open places and took decisions on legislative and administrative affairs. But the citizens appointed some persons to do the job on their behalf and, in that system, there was some sort of accountability. In other words, the citizens could demand explanation from the officers.

With the progress of democracy and rapid progress of representative type of government the accountability has earned added importance. It is chiefly due to the fact that there is no scope of direct participation by the people in the administration. But while people elect someone or some number of people for transaction of some job, it is a general expectation that he or they will do the job satisfactorily. Any failure will call for an explanation. This is accountability. The key idea of accountability is to ensure a balance in the administrative system.

Here the word balance is used in a special sense. It means that someone is entrusted with a job and he is supposed to do it. But if his performance fails to satisfy then he Is required to be called for an explanation of his failure. Here lies the balance and it constitutes the very foundation of democracy. The idea of accountability has another meaning-it is control. Whenever one is asked to do a job, there must lie the system of controlling the process.

Importance of accountability

Accountability builds trust
Perhaps the most important result of accountability is trust, which is essential in any relationship.  Being accountable to something means that you’re willing to make commitments and be responsible for your own actions. This promotes trust between you and the people around you. In a contract or covenant, you’re entrusted to protect something.  When you allow yourself to be accountable to this trust, you’re effectively telling people that you’re going to admit it and make amends when the trust is broken.  In effect, you’re emphasizing how important and committed you are to what you pledged to protect.

Accountability improves performance
Accountability eliminates the time and effort you spend on distracting activities and other unproductive behavior. Research shows that some people have the tendency to engage in ineffective behavior. Without accountability, you may only catch these behaviors when mistakes and errors have already been made and your organization has already suffered the loss. By building a culture of accountability on the onset, you rid your organization of ineffective behavior, put the right people on the right jobs, and send the message that you’re serious about excellent work.

Accountability promotes ownership
When you make people accountable for their actions, you’re effectively teaching them to value their work.  Through positive feedback and corrective actions, they learn that their behavior and actions have an impact on the team. They’re not just floating members without clear roles to play – they’re important to your organization. When people know that they’re valued and important, they’re more driven to work hard. They learn to have a sense of ownership in what they do.

Accountability inspires confidence
When done right, accountability can increase your team members’ skills and confidence. Don’t mistake accountability for controlling behavior. The key is to provide the right support – give constructive feedback, improve on your members’ suggestions, give them freedom to decide, and challenge them to think of better solutions as a team.  When people know that you’re actually listening and concerned about their performance, they’re more likely to step up and do their best.

Given these reasons, it’s important that you build a culture of accountability from the start.  Remember that accountability is building a culture of trust and not fear.  Your goal is not to punish and look for errors and mistakes. Instead, you seek to open up multiple feedback mechanisms, fill in gaps, improve on solutions, reward productive behavior, and remove unproductive ones. As a leader, you yourself should hold yourself to the highest level of accountability.

Some organizations do away with accountability, because they think that people will feel like they’re under constant surveillance. However, when done with the right motivations and the corresponding appropriate actions, accountability will give people more freedom to be their best.

Accountability vs Responsibility

The terms responsibility and accountability are often used interchangeably by the people, due to some similarities like the flow of both of these two, is from bottom to top. Although, they are different in the sense that, in the case of responsibility, a person does what he/she is asked to do. On the other hand, in accountability, a person agrees to do, what he/she is supposed to do. The basic difference between responsibility and accountability is that the former is assumed whereas the latter is imposed.

Responsibility is defined as an obligation to perform or complete the assigned task. It is the duty of the subordinate to complete the delegated task adequately. It is generated out of a superior-subordinate relationship, where the junior is bound to perform the task assigned to him by the senior. Hence, the flow of responsibility is bottom-up, as the subordinate is responsible to his/her senior. The word responsibility describes a person or group who is complete in charge of something and will ensure the work will be done properly.

The term accountability means a sense of being answerable for the final consequences. When an authority is delegated, the employee is empowered to perform the task for his superior, but the superior would still take the ownership of the final result. The flow of accountability is bottom-up, as the subordinate would be liable to the superior for the task. When a person is accountable for something, he is supposed to explain the outcomes of his actions, decisions, and omissions. It denotes an individual or group who are ready to make good or take the blame if the work is not completed properly.

The following points are noteworthy so far as the difference between responsibility and accountability is concerned:

1. The state of having the duty, to do whatever it takes to complete the task, is known as responsibility. The condition, wherein a person is expected to take ownership of one’s actions or decisions, is called accountability.

2. Responsibility refers to the obligation to perform the delegated task. On the other hand, answerability for the consequence of the delegated task.

3. Responsibility is assigned whereas accountability is accepted.

4. The origin of responsibility is the assigned authority. On the contrary, accountability arises from responsibility.

5. Responsibility is delegated but not completely, but there is no such thing like delegation of accountability.

6. The performance of a person is not necessarily measured when he/she is responsible. Unlike, accountability, wherein the person’s performance is measured.

7. Responsibility is something, wherein a person is held responsible before or after task. In contrast to, accountability where a person can only be accountable after the task is performed or not performed satisfactorily.

Communication: Meaning, Purpose, Importance and Principles

Communication: Meaning, Purpose, Importance and Principles

Meaning and Nature of Communication:

The exchange of information or passing of information, ideas or thought from one person to the other or from one end to the other is communication. According to McFarland communication is, “a process of meaningful interaction among human beings. More specifically, it is the process by which meanings are perceived and understandings are reached among human beings.” Newman and summer defined communication as “an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or emotions by two or more persons.”

Communication is the process of passing information from one person to another. The purpose of communication understands of information. Whatever one wants to say to someone should be clearly understood by him else the very purpose of the communication would be defeated.

In an organisation communication facilitates the flow of information and understanding between different people and departments through different media using all the channels and networks. This flow of information is vital for managerial effectiveness and decision making in general and for human resource manager in particular as he has to be in contact with the managers of various departments, employees and workers and trade union leaders.

Communication thus helps understand people better removing misunderstanding and creating clarity of thoughts and expression. It also educates people. The communication may be written or oral, formal, informal, and upward, downward, horizontal, diagonal, interpersonal, intrapersonal, interdepartmental, intra-organisational.

The communication brings people together, closer to each other. The communication is an important management function closely associated with all other managerial functions. It bridges the gap between individuals and groups through flow of information and understanding between them. Information is the most vital aspect for communication. It is the information which is transmitted, studied, analyzed and interpreted and stored. The manager therefore has to spare time to collect, analyze and store the information for decision-making and routine day to day business.

Purpose of Communication:

Management is getting the things done through others. The people working in the organisation should therefore be informed how to do the work assigned to them in the best possible manner. The communication is essential in any organisation.

The purpose of the communication can be summed up into the following:

1. Flow of Information: The relevant information must flow continuously from top to bottom and vice versa. The staff at all levels must be kept informed about the organisational objectives and other developments taking place in the organisation. A care should be taken that no one should be misinformed. The information should reach the incumbent in the language he or she can understand better. The use of difficult words should be avoided. The right information should reach the right person, at right time through the right person.

2. Coordination: It is through communication the efforts of all the staff working in the organisation can be coordinated for the accomplishment of the organisational goals. The coordination of all personnel’s and their efforts is the essence of management which can be attained through effective communication.

3. Learning Management Skills: The communication facilitates flow of information, ideas, beliefs, perception, advice, opinion, orders and instructions etc. both ways which enable the managers and other supervisory staff to learn managerial skills through experience of others. The experience of the sender of the message gets reflected in it which the person at the receiving end can learn by analyzing and understanding it.

4. Preparing People to Accept Change: The proper and effective communication is an important tool in the hands of management of any organisation to bring about overall change in the organisational policies, procedures and work style and make the staff to accept and respond positively.

5. Developing Good Human Relations: Managers and workers and other staff exchange their ideas, thoughts and perceptions with each other through communication. This helps them to understand each other better. They realize the difficulties faced by their colleagues at the workplace. This leads to promotion of good human relations in the organisation.

6. Ideas of Subordinates Encouraged: The communication facilitates inviting and encouraging the ideas from subordinates on certain occasions on any task. This will develop creative thinking. Honoring subordinates’ ideas will further motivate them for hard work and a sense of belonging to the organisation will be developed. It will provide them with the encouragement to share information with their superiors without hesitation. The managers must know the ideas, thoughts, comments, reactions and attitudes of their subordinates and subordinates should know the same from the lowest level staff of their respective departments.

Importance of Communication:

Effective communication is vital for efficient management and to improve industrial relations. In modern world the growth of telecommunication, information technology and the growing competition and complexity in production have increased importance of communication in organisations large and small irrespective of their type and kind. A corporate executive must be in a position to communicate effectively with his superiors, colleagues in other departments and subordinates. This will make him perform well and enable him to give his hundred percent to the organisation.

The following points can illustrate the importance of communication in human resource management:

1. Base for Action: Communication acts as a base for any action. Starting of any activity begins with communication which brings information necessary to begin with.

2. Planning Becomes Easy: Communication facilitates planning. Planning is made easy by communication. Any type of information regarding the human resource requirement of each department of the organisation with their qualifications, the type and kinds of job etc. can be collected through communication which helps in human resource planning. Policies and programmes for their acquisition can be prepared and implemented. In the entire process communication plays a vital role, it also facilitates managerial planning of the organisation.

3. Means of Coordination: Communication is an important tool for coordinating the efforts of various people at work in the organisation.

4. Aids in Decision-Making: The information collected through communication aids in decision-making. Communication facilitates access to the vital information required to take decisions.

5. Provides Effective Leadership: A communication skill bring manager near to his subordinates and exchange ideas and submits appropriate proposals, knows their opinions, seeks advices and make decisions. This enables a manager to win confidence of his subordinates through constantly communicating with them and removing probable misunderstandings. In this way he leads his people to accomplish the organisational goal.

6. Boosts Morale and Motivation: An effective communication system instills confidence among subordinates and workers ensuring change in their attitude and behaviour. The main cause of conflict and dissatisfaction is misunderstanding which can be removed through communication skills. The removal of misunderstanding makes manager and his subordinates understand each other and create good industrial relations. This boosts up the morale of the people and motivates them to work harder.

Principles of Communication:

Lack of effective communication renders an organisation handicapped. So to have effective communication certain principles are to be followed. They are as follows:

1. Clarity: The principle of clarity means the communicator should use such a language which is easy to understand. The message must be understood by the receiver. The words used should be simple and unambiguous. The language should not create any confusion or misunderstanding. Language is the medium of communication; hence it should be clear and understandable.

2. Adequacy and Consistency: The communicator must carefully take into account that the information to be communicated should be complete and adequate in all respect. Inadequate and incomplete message creates confusion and delays the action to be taken. The adequate information must be consistent with the organizational objectives, plans, policies and procedures. The message which is inconsistent may play havoc and distort the corporate interests.

3. Integration: The principle of integration portrays that through communication the efforts of human resources of the organisation should be integrated towards achievement of corporate objectives. The very aim of communication is to achieve the set target. The communication should aim at coordinating the activities of the people at work to attain the corporate goals.

4. Economy: The unnecessary use of communication system will add to cost. The system of communication must be used efficiently, timely i.e. at the appropriate time and when it is necessary. The economy in use of communication system can be achieved in this way.

5. Feedback: The purpose of communication will be defeated if feedback is not taken from the receiver. The confirmation of the receipt of the message in its right perspective from its receiver fulfills the object of communication. The feedback is essential only in case of written communication and messages sent through messengers. In case of oral type of communication the feedback is immediately known.

6. Need for Communication Network: The route through which the communication passes from sender or communicator to its receiver or communicate refers to communication network. For effective communication this network is essential. The managerial effectiveness will also depend upon the availability of adequate network.

7. Attention: The message communicated must draw the attention of the receiver staff and ensure action from him in the right perspective. The efficient, sincere and prompt manager succeeds in drawing the attention of his subordinates to what he is conveying.

It is the psychology of the people that they watch their superiors closely and then respond to their orders or instructions. Lazy and insincere superiors fail to garner support for themselves and their instructions usually are not taken seriously by their subordinates. Adhering to the above principles shall make communication effective, minimize the human relations problems and increase the overall efficiency.

Significance of Public Administration in developing countries

Significance of Public Administration in developing countries:-

Public administration has become an essential segment of modem society, which has witnessed the emergence of what administrative thinkers call as 'Administrative State'. This means that every activity of individuals from 'Womb to tomb' is regulated and controlled by the State agencies, that is, the administrative agencies. The significance of  public administration is increasing day by day as it has encompassed many new concepts within its fold. The functions, which it performs have expanded in scale, range and nature and is still increasing. It is necessary for not only maintaining public order, social security, welfare and economic infrastructure but also for the delivery of goods in terms  of services like safety, utilities and enforcement of contractual obligations as also for ensuring the rule of law and treating all the citizens equally. Its nature, contents and scope – all go to make it the ‘heart of the problem of modern governments.

Public Administration is of utmost importance for the developing countries which has laid  down for itself numerous plans and programmes of social and economic development. In developing democracies like India, which is striving hard to provide happiness and prosperity to its large number of grieving and impoverished population, public 

administration has not only become the instrument of change and development but also a powerful agency for achieving national integration.

As an instrument of change and development, especially in developing countries like India, public administration has successfully implemented various development programmes like community development, poverty eradication, employment guarantee schemes, housing schemes, rural connectivity, rural electrification, healthcare schemes and so on. As a result, “public administration has definitely changed the face of rural India by providing the basic minimum services and facilities to the rural poor and improving their living conditions. As an instrument of national integration, it has played a very important role in rehabilitating the refugees after partition as also integrating the princely states with the Indian territory”.

Public administration is a great stabilizing force in a society. Governments come and go  but the administration does not change. In this way, it provides continuity and linkages between the old and new policies and programmes. In a diverse country like India, public administration becomes all the more important because it acts as a harmonizing and integrating force. It has brought the people of different caste, class, community and religion on a common platform. In other words, it has created an environment where people with varied backgrounds can live together. In a way, it has also provided stability and strength to Indian democracy.

Role and Importance of Public Adminstration - 

1. It is the basis of Government - 

It is possible for a state to exist without a legislature or judiciary; but 

not even the most backward state can do without administrative 

machinery. The modern state cannot confine its field of activities to 

merely maintenance of law and order, dispensation of Justice, 

collection of revenue and taxes and participation in welfare 

activities. The modern welfare state is expected to provide more 

and more services and amenities to the people. Public 

Adminstration is the machinery used by the state to place itself in a 

position to make plans and programmes that can be carried out. 

2. It is the instrument of change in the society - 

Public Adminstration is regarded as an instrument of change and is 

expected to accelerate the process of development. In our country, 

the government has undertaken the task of levelling down the 

economic inequalities, spreading education among all abolishing 

untouchability securing equality of status, rights of women and 

effective and all round economic and industrial development. The 

burden of carrying out these social changes in a planned and 

orderly way rests upon the Public Adminstration of the country. The 

success of Indian democracy will depend not only on the wisdom of 

the legislature but more on the capability and sense of purpose on 

the part of the Adminstration. 

3. It plays vital role in the life of the people - 

Today every aspect of human life come within the range of Public 

Adminstration. Various departments of government such as 

education, social welfare, food, agriculture, health, sanitation, 

transport, communication etc. are run by the department of Public 

Adminstration. Thus Public Adminstration is rendering various types 

of services to the people from birth to death of an individual. 

4. It is a stabilizing force in the society as it provides continuity 

Public Adminstration is carried on by the civil servants who are the 

permanent executives. Political executives i.e. ministers may come 

and go, systems of government or constitutions may under go 

change but administation goes on for ever. Hence, Public Adminstration is a great stabilising force in society. It is a preserver 

of the society and its culture. 

5. It is instrument of national integration in the developing 

countries which are facing classwars

Conclusion 

The twenty first century, has ushered in a major transformation in the role of the State. 

Public administration that emerged as a part of the law and order state moved on to 

become the welfare state and has now been transformed to a Corporatist State. The 

market forces have entered in those domains which was earlier the exclusive jurisdiction 

of the State bringing about a change in the role of the State. From a doer it has become 

a facilitator and a regulator. To sum up, public administration plays a very important role 

in modern society. 

Public administration is the basis of government whether in monarchy or in democracy 

or in a dictatorship. It is the instrument for executing the laws, policies and programmes 

formulated by the state as also the instrument for bringing social-economic change and

development, especially in the so-called 'Third World' countries, which are engaged in 

the process of social-welding and nation-building. It is also an instrument of national 

integration particularly in the developing countries which are facing the challenges of 

sub-nationalism, secessionism, class wars, and so on.

The success of governement is dependent on the ability of public 

administration. The future of civilized government rests upon the 

ability, to develop a service and philosophy and a practice of 

administration competent to discharge the Public functions of 

civilized society.

JUDICIAL CONTROL OVER ADMINISTRATION

JUDICIAL CONTROL OVER ADMINISTRATION:

Introduction : Public administration exercises a large volume of power to meet the citizens need in modern democratic welfare state. Today administration is not concerned with only pure administrative function but also involved with a large number of quasi-legislative and quasi-judicial functions. In this respect they have a number of chances to become arbitrary or master of the citizens. So it is very necessary to control them. By judicial control is meant the power of the courts to examine the Legality of the officials act and thereby to safeguard the fundamental and other essential rights of the citizens. The underlying object of judicial review is to ensure that the authority does not abuse its power and the individual receives just and fair treatment and not to ensure that the authority reaches a conclusion, which is correct in the eye of law. It comprises the power of a court to hold unconstitutional and unenforceable any law or order based upon such law or any other action by a public authority which is inconsistent or in conflict with the basic law of the land The role of judiciary in protecting the citizens against the excesses of officials has become all the more important with the increase in the powers and discretion of the public officials in the modern welfare states. But the courts cannot interfere in the administrative activities of their own accord. They can intervene only when they are invited to do so by any person who feels that his rights have been abrogated or are likely to be abrogated as a result of some action of the public official. Secondly, the courts cannot interfere in each and every administrative act, as too much of Judicial action may make the official too much conscious and very little of it may make them negligent of the rights of citizens.

Generally judicial intervention in administrative activities is confined to the following cases:

a) Lack of Jurisdiction: If any public official or administrative agency acts without or beyond his or her authority or jurisdiction the courts can declare such acts as ultra-virus. For instance, according to administrative rules and procedures, in all organizations, the competent authority is identified for taking decisions and actions. If any authority or person other than the competent authority takes action, the court’s intervention can be sought under the provisions of lack of jurisdiction.

b) Error of Law: This category of cases arises when the official interpret the law wrongly  and imposes upon the citizen obligations, which are absent in law. The courts are empowered to set right such cases.

 c) Error of Fact: This category of cases is a result of error in discovering cases and actions taken on basis of wrong assumptions. Any citizen adversely affected by error of judgment of public official can approach courts for redressal.

d) Error of Procedure: “Due procedure” is the basis of governmental action in a democracy. Responsible government means a government by procedure. Procedure in administration ensures accountability, openness and justice. Public officials must act in accordance with the procedure laid down by law in the performance of the administrative activities. If the prescribed procedure is not followed the intervention of the courts can be sought and legality of administrative actions can be questioned.

e) Abuse of authority: If a public official exercises his or her authority vindictively to harm a person or use authority for personal gain, court’s intervention can be sought. In legal terms, it is called malfeasance. The courts can intervene to correct the malfeasance of administrative acts.

Forms of Judicial control over Administration;

 Judicial Review The judicial review implies the power of the courts to examine the legality and constitutionality of administrative acts of officials and also the executive orders and the legislative enactments. This is very important method of judicial control The statutes made by Parliament and State Assemblies itself provide that in a particular type of administrative action,’ the aggrieved party will have a right of appeal to the courts or to a higher administrative tribunal. Sometimes, legislative enactment itself may provide for judicial intervention in certain matters.

Criminal and Civil Suits against Public Officials In India civil proceedings can be instituted against a public official for anything done in his official capacity after giving two months notice. When criminal proceedings are to be instituted against an official for the acts done in his official capacity, previous sanctions of the Head of the State i.e., the President or the Governor is required. Some functionaries like the President and the Governor are immune from legal proceedings even in respect of their personal acts. Ministers, however, do not enjoy such immunity.

Extraordinary Remedies Apart from the methods of judicial control already discussed, there are the extraordinary remedies in the nature of writs of Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Certiorari and Quo Waranto. These are called extraordinary remedies because the courts grant these writs except the writ of Habeas Corpus, in their discretion and as a matter of right and that too when no other adequate remedy is available. A writ is an order of the court enforcing compliance on the part of those against whom the writ is issued. In India these writs are available under the provisions of the Constitution. While the Supreme Court is empowered to issue these writs or orders or directives only for the enforcement of Fundamental Rights, the High Courts are empowered to issue these writs not only for the enforcement of Fundamental Rights but also for other rights. We will discuss these writs now. •

Habeas Corpus: Habeas Corpus literally means to have the body of. This writ is an order issued by the court against a person who has detained another to produce the latter before the court and submit to its orders. If it is found that the person in unlawfully or illegally detained, he will be set free. •

Mandamus: Mandamus literally means command. If a public official fails to perform an act which is a part of his public duty and thereby violates the right of an individual, he /she will be commanded to perform the act through this writ. •

 Prohibition: It is a judicial writ issued by a superior court to an inferior court, preventing it from usurping jurisdiction, which is not vested with it. While Mandamus commands activity, Prohibition commands inactivity. This writ can be issued only against judicial or quasijudicial authorities to prevent exercise of excess of jurisdiction by a subordinate court. As such, its significance as a method of judicial control over administration is limited. •

 Certiorari: While Prohibition is preventive; Certiorari is both preventive and curative. It is a writ issued by a superior court for transferring the records of proceedings of a case from an inferior court or quasijudicial authority to the superior court for determining the legality of the proceedings. •

Quo Waranto: Literally, Quo Waranto means ‘on what authority’. When any person acts in a ‘public office’ in which he/she is not entitled to act, the court by the issue of this writ, will enquire into the legality of the claim of the person to that office. If the said claim is not well founded, he or she will be ousted from that office. It is, thus, a powerful instrument against the usurpation of’public offices’

Limitations of judicial control over administration The effectiveness of judicial control over administration is limited by many factors. Some of these limitations are:

1. Unmanageable volume of work: the judiciary is not able to cope up with the volume of work. In a year the courts are able to deal with only a fraction of cases brought before it. Thousands of cases have been pending in Supreme Court, High Courts and Lower Courts for years together for want of time. There is an increase in the cases of litigation without a commensurate expansion of judicial mechanism. This excessive delay in the delivery of justice discourages many to approach the court. The feeling of helplessness results in denial of justice to many.

2. Post-mortem nature of judicial control: In most of the cases the judicial intervention comes only after enough damage is done by the administrative actions. Even if the courts set right the wrong done, there is no mechanism to redress the trouble the citizen has undergone in the process.

3. Prohibitive Costs: The judicial process is costly and only rich can afford it. There is some truth in the criticism of pro-rich bias of judicial system in India. As a result, only rich are able to seek the protection of courts from the administrative abuses. The poor are, in most cases, the helpless victims of the administrative arbitrariness and judicial inaction.

4. Statutory limitations; the courts may be statutorily prevented from exercising jurisdiction in certain spheres. There are several administrative acts, which cannot be reviewed by courts.

5. Specialized nature of administrative actions: The highly technical nature of some administrative actions act as a further limitation on judicial control. The judges, who are only legal experts, may not be able to sufficiently appreciate the technical implications of administrative actions. As a result, their judgments may not be authentic.

 6. Lack of awareness: In developing societies, most of the people who are poor and illiterate are not aware of judicial remedies and the role of the courts. As a result they may not even approach the court to redress their grievances. The courts which can intervene only when it is sought may be helpless in this situation. The general deprivation of people also results in deprivation of justice to them.

7. Erosion of autonomy of judiciary; There is executive interference in the working of judiciary. The quality of judiciary mostly depends on the quality of the judges. The Law Commission made many recommendations to ensure the judicial standards of the bench. The suggestion to create Judicial Commission with responsibility for judicial appointments deserves serious consideration. In recent years, there are many allegations of corruption against judges. This undermines the prestige and the effectiveness of the judiciary.

Bureaucracy or The Civil Service short essay

Bureaucracy or the Civil Service constitutes the permanent and professional part of the executive organ of government. It is usually described as the non-political or politically neutral, permanent, and professionally trained civil servant.

It runs the administration of the state according to the policies and laws of the government political executive. Upon the qualities and efficiency of bureaucracy depends the quality and efficiency of the state administration. It, however, works under the leadership and control of the Political Executive.

OR
It is a form of administrative system used by both public and private institutions. Simply put, it is a government body that is composed of non-politicians but who are appointed to help in policy-making and be in charge of administrative tasks in government agencies.

In government, bureaucrats implement policies, write rules and regulations and administer them on people, among others. In organizations, bureaucracy structure is divided into different levels, from frontline employees up to the upper management. 

Bureaucracy: Meaning and Definition:

The terms bureaucracy, civil service, public servants, public service, civil servants, government service, government servants, officials of government, officials, permanent executive and non-political executive are used to describe all such persons who carry out the day to day administration of the state. The terms Bureaucracy’ and ‘Civil Service’ are popularly used as synonyms.

Narrow and Broad uses of the term Bureaucracy:

In a narrow sense the term Bureaucracy is used to denote those important and higher level public servants who occupy top level positions in the state administration. In the broad sense, it refers to all the permanent employees of the government right from the peons and clerks to the top level officials. Presently, we use the term in its broader dimension.

Definitions:

The word “Bureaucracy” stems from the combination of a French word “Bureau” and a Greek word “Kratos”. In its very basic form, the definition of bureaucracy states that it is a collection or group of officials who engage in administrative and/or policy making duties. The presence of bureaucracy and bureaucrats is largely imperative in modern society where smooth running of an organization, a government or any department for that matter depends on the efficiency of this system.

(1) “Bureaucracy means the civil servants, the administrative functionaries who are professionally trained for the public service and who enjoy permanency of tenure, promotion within service-partly by seniority and partly by merit.” -Garner

(2) “In its broad larger sense the term Civil Service is used to describe any personnel system where the employees are classified in a system of administration composed of a hierarchy, sections, divisions, bureaus, departments and the like.” -Willoughby

(3) “Civil Service/Bureaucracy is a professional body of officials permanent, paid and skilled.” –Finer

Types Of Bureaucracy :

A Guardian Bureaucracy: Dedicated to general welfare. Acts as a champion of justice. Custodian of community’s welfare

B Caste Bureaucracy: ---Higher administrative positions given to individuals from a specific social background. During Mauryan period, senior government positions were given mostly to Brahmins.

C Patronage Bureaucracy: Public appointments are made on the basis of personal favour or as political rewards.

D Merit Bureaucracy: Appointed on the basis of merit through competitive examination. Most countries practice this type.

Advantages

1. Central authority in bureaucracy makes it effective in organizing.
Advocates for bureaucracy have positive views on having hierarchy in an organization. They say that since there is a chain of command, there will be specific roles and tasks for people involved in the departments. This way, management will be able to monitor the performance of the people in lower ranks. Also, with strict regulations and policies that need to be observed, there is a big possibility that duties will be carried out in a systematic and timely manner. Following these set of rules before decision making ensures choices and steps are ideal and well selected.

2. It supports the hiring of specialized officials.
Supporters of bureaucracy prefer the idea of designating appointed officials who have the educational background and expertise on the agency they will assigned to. These bureaucrats also have the training and skills particular to their designation. This ensures these non-elective members know what they are doing and will be able to maximize their knowledge and apply their skills. As a result, tasks are effectively carried out. Another point proponents express in connection with officials having specialization is the possibility that there will always be solutions to issues since problems which cannot be handled by an officer will be escalated to an individual who is also competent.

3. It follows Standard Operating Procedure.
Proponents of bureaucracy look at these formalized rules to bring about efficiency and predictability in results. In this set-up, officials are to follow instructions and procedures step by step in handling tasks and situations. This way, outcomes will be within the specified range.

4. It sets no room for favoritism.
People in favor of bureaucracy claim that with the regulations and procedure to be followed in order to achieve results, the risks of favoring some individuals over others will be minimal if not none at all. A scenario mentioned is one of a student applying for a loan. There is a systematic process involved and certain requirements to be met to get an approval. With skipping a step or one of these requirements lacking, the process will not be able to move forward. With bureaucracy, all will be treated fairly and will undergo the same procedure regardless of affiliation to any of the officials in the particular agency.

5. It allows for merit-based hiring and promotion.
For a non-elective member of a government agency, he or she should be qualified and pass the qualifying exams to be employed or appointed as well as climb the hierarchy. This means that whoever is appointed has the knowledge, expertise and skills to handle the job. No one will be considered simply because he or she is a relative or a friend of a high-ranking official in the agency.

6. It plays an important role in policy making.
Although civil servants do not make policies, they gather the data forwarded to the political executive. They are also responsible for formulating several alternative policies and determine the pros and cons of each. In turn, the political executive will choose one policy which will then be used as an alternative.

1. The rules and procedures are decided for every work it leads to, consistency in employee behaviour. Since employees are bound to follow the rules etc., the management process becomes easy.

2. The duties and responsibilities of each job are clearly defined there is no question of overlapping or conflicting job duties.

3. The selection process and promotion procedures are based on merit and expertise. It assists in putting right persons on right jobs. There is optimum utilisation of human resources.

4. The division of labour assists workers in becoming experts in their jobs. The performance of employees improves considerably.

5. The enterprise does not suffer when some persons leave it. If one person leaves then some other occupies that place and the work does not suffer.

Disadvantages

1. It can hamper achievement of results in time.
Critics are arguing that with the certain steps needed to carry out tasks and the need to follow a chain of command to proceed, lots of time can be lost especially if decisions and results are needed immediately. If a government is run by bureaucrats and there is a chain-of-command, a certain decision like military defense can result to unfavorable outcomes since an action cannot be carried out without different personalities or officials in the hierarchy have approved such. This makes the process slow, according to proponents.

2. It breeds boredom and can affect productivity.
Opponents are criticizing the repetitive tasks in specialized jobs. They claimed that in time, it can bore members of the organization or agency. They added that even in a business which uses bureaucracy, employees might not be able to withstand doing the same work daily. The routine might just be too much from them and may result to absenteeism and less productivity.

3. It results to passive and rule-based human beings.
Another disadvantage being pointed out by some people who do not like a bureaucratic structure say that the strict rules and regulations imposed in bureaucracies seem to remove the freedom of an individual to act and discern on his or her own because of certain restrictions. This, according to some, is not beneficial.

4. It can result to inefficiency.
In bureaucracy, there is less competition since hiring and promotion is based on merits and qualifications. Moreover, once a civil servant is appointed, he or she has a fixed salary, works on specialized tasks and cannot function outside the sphere of the department he or she belongs to. Some people see this as unproductive and a disadvantage because it can demoralize civil servants who belong in a bureaucracy.

1. Rigidity: Rules and regulations in a bureaucracy are often rigid and inflexible. Rigid compliance with rules and regulations discourages initiative and creativity. It may also provide the cover to avoid responsibility for failures.

2. Goal Displacement: Rules framed to achieve organizational objectives at each level become an end to themselves. When individuals at lower levels pursue personal objectives, the overall objectives of the organization may be neglected.

3. Impersonality: A bureaucratic organization stresses a mechanical way of doing things. Organizational rules and regulations are given priority over an individual’s needs and emotions.

4. Compartmentalization of Activities: Jobs are divided into categories, which restrict people from performing tasks that they are capable of performing. It also encourages preservation of jobs even when they become redundant.

5. Paperwork: Bureaucracy involves excessive paperwork as every decision must be put into writing. All documents have to be maintained in their draft and original forms. This leads to great wastage of time, stationery and space.

6. Empire Building: People in bureaucracy tend to use their positions and resources to perpetuate self­ interests. Every superior tries to increase the number of his subordinates as if this number is considered a symbol of power and prestige.

7. Red Tape: Bureaucratic procedures involve inordinate delays and frustration in the performance of tasks.

Disadvantages of Bureaucracy:

1. This system suffers from too much of red tape and paper work.

2. The employees do not develop belongingness to the organisation.

3. The excessive reliance on rules and regulations and adherence to these policies inhibit initiative and growth of the employees. They are treated like machines and not like individuals. There is neglect of human factor.

4. The employees become so used to the system, they resist to any change and introduction of new techniques of operations.

5. In dealing with people, total impersonal approach cannot be adopted because people have feelings, emotions and sentiments which affect decision. Thus, people cannot work totally according to rules and prescriptions.

Role of Bureaucracy: Functions:

Bureaucracy or Civil Service plays a key role in running the Public Administration e by performing the following functions:

1. Implementation of Governmental Policies and Laws:

It is the responsibility of the bureaucracy to carry out and implement the policies of the government. Good policies and laws can really serve their objectives only when these are efficiently implemented by the civil servants.

2. Role in Policy-Formulation:

Policy-making is the function of the political executive. However, the Bureaucracy plays an active role in this exercise. Civil Servants supply the data needed by the political executive for formulating the policies. In fact, Civil servants formulate several alternative policies and describe the merits and demerits of each. The Political Executive then selects and adopts one such policy alternative as the governmental policy.

3. Running of Administration:

To run the day to day administration in accordance with the policies, laws, rules, regulations and decisions of the government is also the key responsibility of the Bureaucracy. The political executive simply exercises guiding, controlling and supervising functions.

4. Advisory Function:

One of the important functions of the Bureaucracy is to advise the political executive. The ministers receive all the information and advice regarding the functioning of their respective departments from the civil servants. As amateurs, the ministers have little knowledge about the functions of their departments. They, therefore, depend upon the advice of bureaucracy. As qualified, experienced and expert civil servants working in all government departments, they provide expert and professional advice and information to the ministers.

5. Role in Legislative Work:

The civil servants play an important but indirect role in law-making. They draft the bills which the ministers submit to the legislature for law-making. The ministers provide all the information asked for by the legislature by taking the help of the civil servants.

6. Semi-judicial Work:

The emergence of the system of administrative justice, under which several types of the cases and disputes are decided by the executive, has further been a source of increased semi-judicial work of the bureaucracy. The disputes involving the grant of permits, licences, tax concessions, quotas etc. are now settled by the civil servants.

7. Collection of Taxes and Disbursement of Financial Benefits:

The civil servants play a vitally important role in financial administration. They advise the political executive in respect of all financial planning, tax-structure, tax-administration and the like. They collect taxes and settle disputes involving recovery of taxes. They play a vital role in preparing the budget and taxation proposals. They carry out the function of granting of legally sanctioned financial benefits, tax reliefs, subsidies and other concessions to the people.

8. Record-Keeping:

The Civil Service has the sole responsibility of keeping systematically all government records. They collect, classify and analyse all data pertaining to all activities of the government. They collect and maintain vital socio­economic statistics which are used for the formulation of Public policies and plans.

9. Role in Public Relations:

The era of modern welfare state and democratic politics has made it essential for the government to keep close relations with the people of the state. The need for maintaining active and full public relations is a vital necessity of every state. The civil servants play an active role in this sphere.

They are the main agents who establish direct contacts with the people. They serve as a two way link. On the one hand, they communicate all government decisions to the people, and on the other hand, they communicate to the government the needs, interests and views of the people. Thus, Bureaucracy plays a vigorously active and highly important role in the working of the government.

Features of Bureaucracy

1. Permanent Character:
The civil servants hold permanent jobs in government departments. They mostly join their services during their youths and continue to work as government servants till the age of retirement which is usually 58 to 60 years.

2. Hierarchical Organisation:
Bureaucracy is hierarchically organised in several levels. Each official is placed at a particular level of hierarchy and he enjoys the privileges and powers which are available to his co-level officials. He is under his immediate higher level officials and is above his immediately lower level officials. The principle of rule of the higher over the lower governs the inter-relations between various levels of bureaucracy.

3. Non-partisan Character:
The members of the Bureaucracy are not directly involved in politics. They cannot join political parties and participate in political movements. They are not affected by the political changes which keep on coming in the political executive. Whichever party may come to power and make the government, the civil servants remain politically neutral and carry out their assigned departmental roles impartially and faithfully.

4. Professional, Trained and Expert Class:
The Bureaucracy constitutes the educated and professionally trained class of persons which helps the political executive in carrying out its functions. The members of civil service are recruited through competitive examinations for appearing in which they have to possess some minimum educational qualifications. Before their appointments, they get special trainings. During the course of their service they attend orientation and refresher courses. They have the knowledge, training and expertise necessary for carrying out their administrative work.

5. Fixed Salaries:
Each member of the Bureaucracy receives a fixed salary. Right at the time of appointment he is allotted a scale of pay, which depends upon the nature and level of his job-responsibility. All the civil servants belonging to a particular class of administrative hierarchy are placed in one scale of pay. Each job also entitles them to some allowances.

6. Bound by Rules and Regulations:
The Bureaucracy always works in accordance with ‘rules and regulations’. ‘Strict obedience to rules’, ‘Through Proper Channel’, ‘Decision-making after satisfying the rules’, are the principles which always guide, direct and regulate the working of bureaucracy. Each official works only within the sphere prescribed for him by the rules of his department.

7. Class Consciousness:
The Civil Servants are highly class conscious. They jealously work to protect and promote the interests of their class of civil servants. They are called the white-collar class because of their faith in their ‘superior status’ as government officials.

8. Public Service Spirit as the Ideal:
Modern Bureaucracy identifies itself with public service spirit. It always tries to project itself as the civil servants devoted to the promotion of public welfare through the satisfaction of public needs. They are expected to behave as ‘officers’ responsible for public welfare, with service as their motto.

9. Bound by a Code of Conduct:
The civil servants have to follow a code of conduct. They have to act in a disciplined way. Their rights, duties and privileges stand clearly defined. The procedure of work is definite and settled. They can be punished for misbehavior, incompetence or negligence or for a violation of their conduct rules. In short, Bureaucracy is characterised by political neutrality, professional competence, permanent/ stable tenure, fixed salaries and strict obedience to rules.

10. Official Record:
Bureaucratic organisation is characterised by maintenance of proper official records. The decisions and activities of the organisation are formally recorded and preserved for future reference. This is made possible by extensive use of filling system in the organisation. An official record is almost regarded as encyclopedia of various activities performed by the people in the organisation.

11. Impersonal Relationships:
A notable feature of bureaucracy is that relationships among individuals are governed through the system of official authority and rules. Official positions are free from personal involvement, emotions and sentiments. Thus, decisions are governed by rational factors rather than personal factors. This impersonality concept is used in dealing with organisational relations as well as relations between the organisation and outsiders.