Control of Legislature Over Administration

In India the legislature, the representative body of the people exercises control over the administration. The administration cannot act contrary to the guidelines laid down by the legislature. It lays down the broader policy of administration. The legislature not only defines the functions of the government but also provides the finance for its various programmes. The control over financial matters is exercised through the various committees established by the legislature. The administration cannot spend a single rupee without the sanction of legislature. The administration is expected to keep the accurate account of all financial transactions and submit the reports of such transactions to the legislature.

 The legislature also deals with the matter related with public personnel. The manner of recruitment of the public personnel, their number, their duties and powers, their service conditions, rules of procedure, code of conduct etc. are determined by the legislature. The failure to adhere to those rules accounts for the disciplinary action against the administration. Further the public personnel are held responsible for their official acts. They are supposed to keep the proper records of their official acts and submit the reports to the legislature at least once a year, when called upon by the legislature giving a full account of their acts. The legislature may also conduct the special investigation or inquiry of the manner in which administrative affairs have been conducted. The legislature has the general power of direction, supervision and control over administration.

Legislature As a Source of All Administrative Powers

Since the legislature promulgates all those laws on the basis of which all administrative functions are performed, the legislature is called the fountain of all administrative powers. Generally, it is wrongly believe that all administrative powers lie in the executive. The reason of this miss concept is that we take the word executive and administrative as synonymous. In fact they are distinct. The function of the executive is to represent the government and to see that different departments of the government are implementing the laws.

The means of legislative control :

1 Parliamentary Questions Questions are a very effective technique of control over the executive. M.Ps can put questions to ministers after giving a due notice. There is a provision of supplementary questions too. Through questions public grievances are ventilated. They keep the Civil servants on their toes. Hugh Gaitskell has rightly remarked, "if there is one measure which leads civil servants to be excessively cautious, timid and careful it is the fear of parliamentary questions." These questions create political awareness among the people. And the Minister are also afraid of them.

2 Debate and Discussions It is also a tool of research and minute examination of government activities.

a On Presidential Address : In all parliamentary forms of government, viz., India, U.K , Canada etc., Every new session of Parliament begins with presidential address. The presidential address embodies principles, policies of Administration, present and future plans, government views on national and international activities. 4 days are allotted for discussion on the address. During this period the opposition leave no stone unturned in criticising government policies. It creates political awareness among the people.

b On the Bills : Most of the bills presented in the Parliament are by the government on the ruling party. During the different stages of bills, the members of the opposition party get the opportunity to challenge the government. They try to expose the government policies. Many a time the criticism become so serve that the government is forced to make considerable changes in the bills, or has to take them back.

c On Other Matters : Besides, any other matter of public concern can be taken up for general discussion in the parliament. The opposition like a wolf is always on trail to find out the weakness of the government. The matter maybe small or big, it cannot escape from the fusillade of criticism from the opposition.

d On the Budget : Before the financial year begins there is an 'annual financial statement' called the 'Budget' that is laid down before the houses of parliament. After that the general discussion takes place on it and all doubts are sought to be cleared. Then there is a voting done to pass it and then the funds are granted. So it is not an easy procedure to get funds.

3 Auditing. Parliament is the custodian of public funds. It is fund-raising and fund-granting authority. Besides sanctioning the money for public expenditure, it has also to ensure that the money is spent legally and honestly. This control over expenditure is exercised by the Parliament through the Comptroller and Auditor General. He audits public expenditure from the Consolidated Fund of India, on behalf of the legislature. He submits his audit report to both the central and state legislatures, as the case may be. Audit has been described as one of the principal historic means of holding public officials to account.

4 Question hour. One hour,that is 11 a.m to 12 p.m. of every parliament day is reserved for questions where around 30-40 oral questions are asked normally and then there are supplementary questions along with the original question that helps cross examine the minister. It helps the public attention to focus on a particular issue and avoids ministerial and bureaucratic arrogance from creeping in.

5 Vote No-confidence Motion. It is also called a vote of censure. It is a very powerful method of parliamentary control. In a country having Parliamentary form of Government, the government can be dismissed through a vote of no-confidence. When the opposition feels that they are totally dissatisfied with the policies and working of the government, that take recourse to this method. If the motion is carried in the house, the government has to resign. But mostly the motions are turn down for want of majority.

6 Adjournment Motion. To draw the attention of the government to the questions of urgent nature and of public importance such as flood, earthquake etc. The device of adjournment motion is used. If the moving of adjournment motion is permitted by the presiding officer then the normal business of the House is suspended for the day and the immediate debate takes place. During the debate and the discussion on the adjournment motion the members of parliament get an opportunity to criticize the administration. Adjournment Motion is the tool of day to-day control.

8 Zero hour discussion. It happens after the question hour that is 12 p.m. and since 12 p.m. is also called zero hour therefore it is named 'Zero Hour'. Here upto five members are allowed by the Speaker to raise matters of public importance under rule 377of the rules of parliamentary procedure.

9 Parliamentary Committees. Parliamentary committees also exercise great control over administration. The examine and scrutinize the working of Administration. In India the public accounts committee and estimates committee are two very important financial committees of the Parliament. Public accounts committee has to scrutinize the appropriation of accounts of the Government of India and the report of the Comptroller and Auditor General there of, and it has to point out whether public money was spent legally and honestly or not. The estimates committee, after reviewing the organisation of the whole budget, suggests economies in the expenditures.

This committee has helped not only to keep vigil on the administration efficiency, but has also help in removing many of the defects inherent in the previous system. The ministers are now careful in giving promises and the administration is prompt enough to take action on the promises given. The various ministers of the government are now conscious of their duties towards parliament.

The Limits of Legislative Control Over Administration

Legislature should not be allowed to exercise control over routine working of the administration. Power should be delegated to the administrative officers, and internal vigilance should be exercised on the use of powers. The misuse of power by the officials should be checked. The detailed legislative control can cause admistrative paralisis. There should be confidence in the efficiency of public servants.

The control of the Legislature over the administration is a salient feature of parliamentary democracy. It is also and indirect method of making the administration responsible to the people. But this control appears to be effective only in theory ; in practice, there are many limitations to the control.

1) Lack of time,staff and expertise and technical knowledge to exert effective control in the most meaningful areas.

2) No sustained measure of control and surveillance.

3) Imperial or rigid mindset of administrators and huge public illiteracy.

4) business groups lobbying.

5) Seniority instead of merit given preference for promotion of bureaucrats thus not letting them do their work with vigour and new ideas.

6) Declaration of emergency cuts their hands off.

7) Govt. bills to become laws out shadow private member's bills which are mostly for the public cause.

8) Funds are not provided many a times as the legislature lacks technical knowledge and is not able to understand the need by the executive for excess grants.

9) Parliament cannot raise money or any tax unless executive demands it but can only increase or reduce those demands

Budget in India, everything you need toknow

What is Budget?

Indian constitution defines Budget as “The annual statement containing an estimate of all anticipated revenue and expenditure of the government for the coming financial year.”

In the hands of administration, the Budget is a record of the past performance, a method of current control, and a projection of future plans.

“Budget is a financial document of the government as presented to the Legislature and sanctioned by the Legislature.”

According to Dimock - “A Budget is a financial plan, summarizing the financial experience of the past, stating a current plan and projecting it over a specified period of time in future.”

Tayler says, “Budget is a financial plan of government for a definite period.”

G.Jeze “A forecast and an estimate of all  public receipts and expenses, for certain expenses and receipts, an authorisation to incur them and to collect them.”

Remo Storm “A document containing a preliminary approved plan of public revenues and expenditure.”

Origin of the term ‘Budget’ has been derived from a French word “Bougette” meaning a leather bag used for carrying official papers. The Story goes that the term was used in its present sense for the first time in 1733 in a satire “Opening of the Budget” directed against Walpole’s financial plan for that year. In England the chancellor of the Exchequer used to carry to the House of Commons a leather bag containing papers, on financial plans. He

used to open his Budget i.e. the bag. Since then the term has been used for a financial statement of annual income and expenditure of the government.

In conclusion : The Budget is a statement of expected revenue and proposed expenditure for a year. It sets forth the procedure and manner in which the revenue is to be collected and the administration of expenditure is to be carried out.

IMPORTANCE OR PURPOSE OF BUDGET

1. It helps administrative management and co-ordination.

2. It is an instrument of social and economic policy.

3. Budgetary system is the most important technique of parliamentary control over administration.

4. It ensures the financial and legal accountability of the executive to the legislature.

If a government desires to achieve through its public administration certain socio-economic goals, it has to make arrangements for the requisite finance. In the absence of proper financial resources, the governmental programmes would become a mere paper execise.

When public money is sent for public purposes, the important task before public administration is to have efficient management of public money. Budgeting is one of the major processes by which the use of public resources is planned and controlled.

The Budgetary process in a modern state consists of the following stages :-

1. Preparation of the Budget.

2. Enactment of the Budget.

3. Execution of the Budget.

4. Legislative control of the Budget

PREPARATION OF THE BUDGET IN INDIA

A) Which agency make the Budget?

The responsibility for framing the budget in India is entrusted to the President of India. Under Article 112 of the Indian constitution, the President shall cause to lay before both the Houses of parliament every financial year a statement of the estimate receipts and

expenditure of the Government of India for the year.

In practice, the president instructs the council of Ministers to undertake the job and the job is performed by the Ministry of Finance.

B) Stages :

1) Preparation of the preliminary estimates by the Heads of Department :- The Finance Ministry Supplies skeleton forms to the administrative heads of departments of expenditure in the month of July. The skeleton forms call for details regarding :

1. Actual for the previous year.

2. Sanctional estimates for the current year.

3. Revised estimates for the current year.

4. Budget estimates for the next year.

2) The scrutiny and Review by the controlling officers :-The skeleton information is scrutinised, reviewed, finalized and consolidated by the Heads of administrative departments Such estimates are forwarded to finance Ministry in the month of November.

3) Scrutiny and Review of the estimates by the Auditor General : One copy of the department’s preliminary estimates is forwarded to the Auditor General of India. The Auditor General scrutinize the estimates from an accountants angle to ensure compliance of technical requirements. The administrative heads of the various departments keeps in view the comments of the comptroller and Auditor General while preparing the revised estimates of their departments.

4) Scrutiny and review of the Revised Estimates by the Ministry of Finance : The revised estimates are thereafter verified by the Finance Ministry.

5) Estimating the Revenue : The work of estimating the revenue is the responsibility of the Finance Ministry. The Ministry compares the figures of income and expenditure with previous year’s figures and proposes changes in the existing rates if necessary. At this stage the Budget Division in the Ministry of Finance prepares an estimate projection of revenue and expenditure of the Government of India for the ensuing year. On the basis of the estimated expenditure and proposals regarding fresh taxes the ‘Draft Budget’ is prepared by the end of December.

6) The final consideration of the consolidated estimates by the cabinet :The draft budget is examined by the Finance Minister in January. He consults the Prime Minister and prepares his financial policy. At the end of February the budget is finalised by the Finance Minister. The skeleton budget are submitted to the cabinet for its

consideration and are usually approved ‘as it is’ by the cabinet. After the budget is approved by the cabinet, it is presented to the parliament usually on the last working day in the month of February by the Finance Minister.

ENACTMENT OF THE BUDGET :

Enactment of the Budget is the second stage of Budgetary process. It means approval of the Budget by the parliament and ratification by the president.

Article 265 of the Indian constitution provides that “No tax shall be levied or collected except by authority of law.”

Article 266 provides that, “No moneys out of the consolidated Fund of India shall be appropriated except in accordance with law and for the purposes and in themanner as passed by the Legislature.”

Consideration :

The Stages in the enactment of the budget are as follows : These stages are five -

1. Presenting the Budget.

2. General discussion.

3. Voting of Demands for Grants.

4. Consideration and passing of Appropriation Bill.

5. Consideration and passing of Finance Bill.

1. Presenting the Budget. The President of India convenes the Budget session of the parliament, usually in the month of February. The Budget session commences with the President’s address and followed by the presentation of the Budget.

The Budget is presented in two parts. one is Railway Budget and other is General Budget. The Railway Budget is presented in the third week of February by the Union Railway Minister which contains proposals of expenditure and revenue pertaining to the Railway. The General Budget is presented on the last working day of February by the Union Finance Minister.

The Budget speech of the Finance Minister gives information relating to general economic conditions of the country. Financial policy to be followed by the government, the explanation for the difference between the budget estimates and the revised estimates of the current year. It highlights the taxation proposals, new schemes launched by the government.

The Finance Minister, along with the Budget submits a number of documents to parliament. Finance Minister submits the Budget and concludes his Budget speech. After that there is no discussion on the Budget in the House. Budget is presented only in the Lok-Sabha.

2. General discussion on Budget The speaker of LokSabha fixes the date on which general discussion on the Budget take place. Such discussion usually takes place one week after the presentation of the Budget. Four days are allotted for the general discussion on the Budget. Such general discussion on the Budget takes place in both the Houses of

Parliament simultaneously. At the time of general discussion “the House shall be at liberty to discuss the Budget as a whole or any question of principle involved therein. The Finance Minister gives reply to the issues raised in the course of discussion.”In this stage Budget is not submitted to the vote of Parliament.

3. Voting of Demands for Grants. The next stage in the enactment of the budget is voting of Demands for grants. It means voting on the expenditure part of the budget. These demands are presented ministrywise. The speaker in consultation with the leaders of the Various political parties allots time for discussion. The discussion on the voting of demands

continues for 26 days and within this period all the demands are supposed to be discussed and passed, A demand duly voted becomes a grant. It should be noted that the House can only reduce a demand, but cannot increase it. The voting of demands is the exclusive privilege of the Loksabha. Rajya Sabha has no role to play except discussing the demands for grants.

This stage of enactment of budget gives the members of the parliament an opportunity to criticise the working of the Ministry whose demands are voted by the House. They can move cut motions such as policy cut motion, economy cut motion and concentrate discussion on specific issues. Such motions, when put to vote, are usually defeated but such motions enable the members of Parliment to expose the inefficiency, unsatisfactory working and other deficiencies.

4. Consideration and passing of Appropriation Bill.

After voting of demands is over, the budget enters into the stage of enactment. i.e. the consideration and approval of the Appropriation Bill. All the demands for grants voted by the Loksabha and the expenditure charged on the consolidated fund of India are put together and incorporated in the Annual Appropriation Bill.

The Appropriation Bill is introduced in the Loksabha. The Bill follows the same procedure in the House as any other money bill. After the Bill is passed in the House, it is certified by the speaker as a money bill and it is sent to the Rajyasabha. Rajyasabha is empowered to discuss the bill and make recommendations within 14 days to the Loksabha. The latter may or may not accept the recommendations. In case the Rajasabha does not return the bill within the 14 days, the bill is deemed as passed by that House.

After the Bill is passed by both Houses of parliament it is sent to the President of India for his formal assent.

5. Consideration and passing of Finance Bill

Finance Bill means taxation proposals. It contains the proposals for revenue for the ensuing financial year. It embodies the proposals for imposing raising or renewal of taxes. The procedure for the enactment of the financial Bill is the same as in passing of money bill. When this bill is enacted by parliament and receives the formal assent of the President, the government is authorised to collect taxes as provided in the Finance Bill.

Conclusion : Thus Enactment of the Budget consists of approval of the parliament to the Finance and Appropriation Bills.

EXECUTION OF THE BUDGET

It means the implementation of the Budget. After the enactment of

the Budget by the parliament, ministries and attached offices of the

Government are authorised to incur expenditure.

Control of the Finance Ministry :

Parliament sanctioned the grants as a whole and not to individual

ministers. The Finance Ministry exercised control on the spending

of Ministries. The control of Finance Ministry is continous. At the

time the money is actually spent, the Finance Ministry exercises

stringent control. It is based on the notion that the parliament

makes the grants to the Government as a whole and not to

individual Ministries. The Finance Ministry, as the agency managing

the finance, has to be convinced about the desirability and

prudence of the proposed expenditure before it lets the spending

Ministry involved to proceed with it. The concurrence of the Finance

Ministry is not required for the normal existing expenditure, but new

expenditure must have the prior approval of the Finance Ministry.

The Budget division of the Ministry of Finance applies broad checks

and determines gross amount for the various schemes.

Various principles of budget.

1 Publicity. Publicity is the essential feature of modern budget. Today budget is no longer an estimate of bare statement of proposed government revenues and expenditure. It is a vehicle of social reconstruction and the public welfare. The government budget passes through various stages e.g..,  Recommendation of the budget by the executive to the legislature, consideration and approval by the legislature etc. It should be given every possible publicity. In India, the government has recently decided to telecast the presentation of the budget on the National Network of Doordarshan.

2 Clarity. The budget is a complex document. however, it should be framed in such a way as to be clearly understood by the common man. At least its language should be clear and easy to be understood. The more clear it is, easier it would be to implement it.

3 Comprehensiveness. The budget must comprise the entire fiscal program of the government. It should be able to give a complete picture of government revenues and expenditures. It should give a clear picture of all new debts or borrowings to be incurred by the government. There should be a detailed specification of receipts and appropriations. One can have a total financial picture of the government from the budget.

4 Unity. All government receipts  should be consolidated in one common fund for financing all expenditures.

5 Periodicity. There should be a fixed period for which the expenditure demands of the government should be authorised. If money is not utilised within the specific period, it should either lapse, or should be reappropriated.

Generally, in most of the countries, the budget grants are on the annual basis. For this period the legislature sanctions all government grants, and permits the levy of taxes.

6 Accuracy. Accuracy and reliability of budget estimates is essential for any sound financial system. The estimates of budget must be based on accurate information. It should be detailed and pertinent to permit rational evaluation. No intentional under-estimating or concealment of fact should be there.

7 Integrity. Once budget is approved by the legislature, it should be carried out substantially. If it is not executed as it was enacted, there is no point in having a budget at all.

8 Prior Authorisation. Another feature of a budget should be that all funds to be spent during a period, must be sanctioned beforehand. If the approval of the Legislature is sought after having spent the money, it is most irregular.

9 Balanced. The budget should be balanced- that is, the income and expenditure must be equal. Both deficit and surplus budget are faulty. However, in all developing countries today, the deficit  budgeting is a fashion.

10 Executive Type Budget. Usually there are three types of budget:  (i) Legislative type of budget (ii) Executive type of budget (iii) The Board or Commission type of budget.

(i) Legislative type of budget. When the budget is prepared by a committee of Legislature it is called legislative type of budget. This budget strengthens the bonds of cooperation and affinity between the legislature and the executive. But the competence of the Legislature to do so is doubtful. Legislature cannot be familiar with the requirements and needs of various executive departments to prepare a successful budget.

(ii) Executive type of budget. In this system the budget is prepared by the executive, and after it has been approved by the legislature, the responsibility for its implementation just on the executive. Today it is the universal accepted principle of budget preparation and its execution.

(iii) The Board or Commission type of budget. In this type, budget is formulated by a board or a commission which consists of only administrative officers or both administrative and legislative offices jointly. This is practised in USA. The purpose of this arrangement is to associate a board of competent officers with the budget making process. 

In modern times the executive type of budget is a common fashion. It is a right conclusion that the executive type of budget is the best instrument to serve all purposes. Thus, the executive should be allowed to prepare the estimates of income and expenditure, and get it approved by the legislature. The executive budget is prepared by experts, for example, the treasury of Britain and finance department in India are the expert agencies to prepare the executive budget.

Methodology or Approaches of Public Administration

Methodology or Approaches of public administration

To study different branches of knowledge we use two methods deductive and inductive. Under deductive method we proceed from general to the particular; on the contrary, in the inductive method the procedure is from particular to the general through Observation for collecting the data, its classification and the verification of hypothesis. No single method is enough for the study of Social Science. There we have to examine all possible methods or approaches to see which suits us most to reach the desired result. The different sets of results so obtained progressively illuminate our problems and give us an insight into the possible solutions. In case of Social Sciences, the word method is rather loosely used to connote a particular approach from which the discipline is studied. Therefore, we can only discuss the various approaches to the study of public administration rather than its method in the scientific sense of the term.
       There are different schools regarding methodology of public administration. The chief among them can be classified as such:
1. Traditional Or Structural approach
2. Behavioural approach
3. System approach
1. Traditional approach
   The traditional approach is called by various name like structural, legal, formal, historical, normative and descriptive approach. Its chief advocate are L.D.white, Willoughby, Enderson etc. Traditionalists presume that the principal problems of public administration arise from the legal structure of the organisation. It then presents interrelationship of Organisation in the historical perspective of the problems. The advocates of this approach, take the principles of organisation, plausibility of the organisation, and what the organisation needs as basis of their study. This school has been criticized as (i) this reduces the scope of public administration to the limit that it becomes difficult to call it a discipline, and (ii) these studies her so much descriptive that they lack observation and analysis. 
      This approach accepts the following methods of study of public administration:
1.Historical method
2. Legal method 
3. Scientific method
4. Subject - matter method
5. Biographical method
6. Political method
1. Historical method = historical method is a traditional method of study of Social Sciences. It has been in vogue ever since man has developed literary tastes. However, the early thinkers hesitated in making use of this method, for they wanted to place public administration on the pedestal of mechanics. Thus instead of applying the historian's telescope the preferred to apply the law of mechanics. 
       Fortunately, of late, there is a revival of interest in the historical studies of public administration. L. D. White has described American Federal administration in its formative period through his four remarkable historical studies untitled the Federalists, Jeffersonians and Jacksonians and the Republican Era. Efforts are being made to utilise biographical and autobiographical studies to get a glimpse into the inside of Administrative organisation. 
2. Legal method= this method of study is most popularly used in the European Continental countries viz. France, Belgium and Germany. These countries have long tradition of Administrative law. The latter includes the organisation and functions of public authorities and the problems of their correlation, powers and responsibilities. Thus, public administration therefore is considered to be part of Administrative law and as such, it is studied in legal framework. 
3 scientific method = Like any other social Sciences, public administration makes use of the inductive method of proceeding from particular to the general through Observation for Collection of data, its classification and verification of hypothesis. The scientific method has helped to develop effective organisational techniques and management of budgeting and supply. Thus, administration was separated from politics. Although today the study of public administration has passed off the scope of scientific management fever, many techniques of other Management, Accounting etc. are still determined on the scientific principles.
      However, there are authors who criticize this method for its Indifference to the human element in the public administration. Besides, public administration cannot be subjected to experiments in a science laboratory. 
4. Subject matter method = this method instead of studying some general principles of public administration insists on the individual study of specific specialized services or their programmes. For example, education, defence,, police financing etc. which are specialized departments become the subject of study. In U.K and India this method is being used for quite a long time. Recently, at national level, in the administration of the USA this method has been used. The  underlined philosophy behind this method is that organisation and administration are 2 effective means to achieve desired result. We cannot succeed by separating them. 
5. Biographical  method = this method resembles the historical method. Biographical method means the system of study of biographies of the experiences of famous senior officials. These may either be autobiographies or biographies, they reflect true and practical knowledge of Administrative Problems and their decision unlike USA and the UK. In India this system is not so developed. However recently some books like Banerji 's Under 2 Masters, Karl ' s The Untold story, Dharamvir's The memories of a civil servant  have been published. This method has a drawback that the public workers lay greater emphasis on political affairs than the administrative activities. 
6. Political Method = the political approach to public administration is based on the rejection of the politics~ administration dichotomy which the earlier American writers accepted as a technical approach. It rejects the view that the administration can we studied separately from the politics. Ultimately, administration is a political process which acts under a political structure. Administration is not an end in itself but a means. Thus, the requirements of good administration should be sought in the political system of a country. Administrative problems are always part of the political problems. Some of the leading American Scholars of public administration example John Gauss, Paul Appleby etc. have now frankly given up the non political view of public administration and approach it from the broadly political standpoint.

2. Behavioural approach 
     The behavioral School covers a method of examining Public Administration by studying individual and collective human behaviour in administrative situations. It follows an interdisciplinary approach which includes sociology, psychology, and cultural anthropology. This method can be distinguished from the traditional methods which approached administration from a single angle= historical legal or political. 
         This method originated in the USA and it was first used in social environments other than public administration. During the second world war, when wartime contacts brought public administrators, Businessman and social scientist close together, this method of study caught their eye. According to Smithburg the behavioral method of public administration has four main characteristics which are as follows;
1. The first is the increased attention to the individual and his relationship to the administrative organisation;
2. The second feature of the behavioral approach is the administrative organisation is studied as a social system. Formerly attention was concentrated exclusively to formal relationship... now informal relationships of man in the organisation receive equal attention;
3. Thirdly the replacement of the theory of sovereignty by that of legitimacy, and
4. Lastly the means of communication are changed from formal to informal ones. 
             According to behavioural approach the following methods of study of public administration are approved:
1. Psychological method= like other branches of political science, Psychology also began to influence the study of public administration. Human behaviour is the basis of public administration too, this psychology has much to contribute for its understanding. Miss Follett was a Pioneer to the application of psychological method to administration. She showed how the wishes, prejudices and values of the individuals and groups influence their behaviour in public administration. From the view of psychology, administration becomes essentially a problem of human relation. It is frequently applied to business administration. 
2.Case method = again it is also a Peculiar contribution at the USA to the methodology of public administration. A case means any particular problems which has addison and been served in any administrative agency. It's study is concerned with the recording of the circumstances of a case, the procedure and the steps by which the decision is to be taken, the reasons for the decision;and the evaluation of the decision in the light of result which followed. 
     The success and possibility of the application of the case method depends upon the willing Cooperation Of administration with the scholar. He must furnish the necessary information to the scholar and should permit him to see the relevant files and records. In India there is much feeling of secrecy and non cooperation among the public officials, thus the method is not much successful. 
3. The method of Quantitative measurement= this method of study is the principle method of exact Sciences. The quantitative measurement of data and results make a true scientific knowledge in any sphere possible. But this method is difficult to be used in the Social Sciences, for the latter are based on the element of values. Here the progress of Land Reforms cannot be judged and evaluated by land distribution or enactment of laws, but we have to see which class is benefited by it, and to what extent we have to considered its qualitative aspect as well. A British teacher of public administration tried to apply this scheme of measurement to the education service of his country, but failed. He then observed, much more requirement and elaboration would be needed before a practicable measurement plan could be evolved for education or for any particular service. (Prof W.S. STEER) 
4. Ecological method= The ecological method of study public administration Lays emphasis upon the need for study of public administration and other problems of Administration in the light of concerning people and their environment. For the diversity of people and their Ecology, same administration or administrative activity fails to give same results. 


3.System approach =
    To David Eston now,post - behaviouralism era has begun. Besides, being a reaction against behaviouralism, system approach is different and independent. Today system approach is become popular and behaviouralism is being criticised for its validity and aimlessness.  Different from both traditionalist and behaviourlists, system approach is a view which takes system to be its key. 
     The fundamentals of system approach has taken shape and can easily be recognised. Often they are called credo of relevance. The supporters of this approach accept that facts come before that technique; values should be developed, primary information should be sought which do not come in the sphere of science. 
     According to the system approach, the organisation is built to achieve some end. In an organisation its organs have their separate functions. But evaluation of their functions should be made on the whole. All parts of the organisation are interdependent and dynamic. In the Administrative structure there is a system of inputs and outputs which regulate the administrative system. 
   

Conclusion 
     All these approaches have vast potentialities for development of the study of public administration. But none of them can be adequate by itself. The subject matter of Public Administration is so Complex and yet so unexplored that it needs to be touched from all angles. Really a synthetical approach is being developed in the USA. The various approaches should not, therefore, be viewed as Rivals contending for Monopoly but as the necessary compliments of one another.

New Public Administration

New Public Administration is an anti-positivist, anti-technical, and anti-hierarchical reaction against traditional public administration. A practiced theory in response to the ever changing needs of the public and how institutions and administrations go about solving them. Focus is on the role of government and how they can provide these services to citizens in which are a part of public interest, by means, but not limited to public policy.

1. Bureaucracy should be studied structurally as well as functionally.

2. Definition of the subject is as difficult as de-lineation of its scope.

3. A hierarchical view of organizational authority needs to be changed; administrators must view workers as “coordinates” rather than ‘subordinates’,

4. Policy and political considerations are replacing management concerns as the major focus of public Administration.

5. Future administrators should be trained in professional schools. Public Administration courses should emphasis not only Administrative organisation and procedures but also in interdisciplinary approach.

 6. Public Administration has not been able to deal with societal problems.

 Conclusion of the discussion was - Public Administration should be viewed as an academic discipline, as a field exercise and as administration in the public interest.

History

 New Public Administration traces its origins to the first Minnowbrook Conference held in 1968 under the patronage of Dwight Waldo. This conference brought together the top scholars in public administration and management to discuss and reflect on the state of the field and its future. The 1960s in the USA was a time of unusual social and political turbulence and upheaval. In this context, Waldo concluded that neither the study nor the practice of public administration was responding suitably to the escalating turmoil and the complications that arose from those conditions. Part of the reasoning for this Waldo argued, was the general mistrust that had become associated with public administration itself. A call to revamp the ethical obligations of the service sector was necessary in rebuilding the public's trust of government and bureaucracy in which had been plagued by corruption and the narrow self-interests of others. Moving toward a more ethical public service, then, required attention to the underlying values that support public service-and public servants-in any sector

New Public Administration theory deals with the following issues:

Democratic citizenship; Refers directly to the belief in creating a government where the "common man" have a voice in politics. For such an approach to work, citizens must become aware, knowledgeable, and active in their communities and nations. True democratic citizenship requires more than voting for representatives. It requires using one's own mind, voice, and actions.

Public interest; Refers to the collective common good within society, to which is the main objective of public interest.

Public policy; The means by which new public policy is enacted, and introduced. Not limited in participation of the public but encouraged involvement.

Services to citizens; Providing and upholding the moral and ethical standard in regards to meeting the needs of citizens through institutions and bureaucracies.

Features of new public administration

Responsiveness: The administration should bring about certain internal as well as external changes so that public administration could be made more relevant to the social, economic, political and technological environment. For this to happen the administration has to be more flexible and adaptable to the various changes.

Client Centricity: this means that the effectiveness of the administrator should be judged not only from the point of view of the government, but from that of the citizens. If the administrative actions did not improve the quality of life of citizens then they are not effective notwithstanding whatsoever rationality and efficiency they may have.

Structural Changes in Administration: the new public administration approach calls for small, flexible and less hierarchical structures In administration so that the citizens administration interface could become more flexible and comfortable. The organizational structure should be in with the socially relevant conditions.

Multi-disciplinary Nature of Public Administration: knowledge from several disciplines and not just one dominating paradigm build the discipline of public administration. The political, social, economic, management and human relation approaches are needed to ensure the growth of discipline.

Politics-Administration Dichotomy since administrators today are involved in policy formulation and policy implementation at all the stages. Dichotomy meaning "a division or contrast between two things that are or are represented as being opposed or entirely different".

Awareness: Bring attention to the works of a public administration and the task that public administrators carry out for the community and for the government. Jobs of public administrators affect community’s and mass amounts of people. The importance of the job should be highlighted.

Case Studies: Case studies help public administrators highlight situations and events where policies were not carried out as they should be. They set an example for what to do and what not to do. Case studies are a basic way to break down events in order to learn from other people’s mistakes and the affects those mistakes have had on the community. With public administration being a job devoted to the people; it is an obvious way to see the reality of the work you do in the community. While there are many cases where policies were not carried out as planned. There are also plenty of examples of executed policy’s that have benefited community’s, and those are important to look at as well.

Structure Change: Public Administration is moving is many different directions, it is more often called Public Management now. This is because the job is moving towards a direction of not only implementing policy to people but also managing policies as it trickles down through the law process, so that it is realistic for community’s and the people in them.

Jack of All Trades: the best public administrators tend to be someone who has knowledge in politics and law, but also has a hand in community functions. This allows for a smooth transition from policy to implementation.

Change: With the changes in the world, the job of public administration has changed. The job may be the same, but titles like Public Manager and Public Adviser has replaced the title public administrator.

Criticism

Though New Public Administration brought public administration closer to political science, it was criticized as anti-theoretic and anti-management. Robert T. Golembiewski describes it as radicalism in words and status quo in skills and technologies. Further, it must be counted as only a cruel reminder of the gap in the field between aspiration and performance. Golembiewski considers it as a temporary and transitional phenomena. In other words, we can say that the solutions for achieving the goals and anti-goals were not provided by the NPA scholars explicitly. Secondly, how much one should decentralize or delegate or debureaucratize or democratize in order to achieve the goals? On this front NPA is totally silent.

As said in A New Synthesis of Public Administration, governments have always been called upon to make difficult decisions, undertake complicated initiatives and face complex problems characteristics of the period. This is not in dispute. Nonetheless, the current circumstances are to determine what can be handled in the traditional way and what must be done differently.